The origins of WOAH date back to 1921, with a shipload of zebus travelling from India to Brazil. The zebus transited at the Belgian port of Antwerp, where they were quarantined with cattle from the United States, before being forwarded by rail to various European slaughterhouses. The zebus were infected with rinderpest, a deadly disease that quickly spread through the other imported cattle, all over Europe. The disease was already well-known in this region and others, where it had killed millions of cattle in the past, causing devastation in farms.  

This situation was mitigated by quick action from national veterinary services, but it confirmed the need for international cooperation on disease prevention procedures. At the 1921 Paris Conference, 43 countries and territories decided to establish an Office International des Epizooties. The OIE [former acronym of WOAH] was born on 25 January 1924. 

1968: the first Code to regulate trade of animals and their products  

In 1960, the Organisation launched the International Veterinary Quarantine Operation to progressively harmonise international exchanges of animals and animal commodities. After years of unprecedented efforts to facilitate standardisation, including multiple worldwide conferences, the International Zoosanitary Code was published in 1968, providing the regulatory basis for safe international trade of terrestrial and aquatic animals and animal commodities.  

A science-based and democratic approach 

Nowadays, this first Code has evolved. It is now a fully developed system organised in four sets of publications, which provide international standards to monitor, detect and control more than 120 animal diseases, to improve animal welfare, veterinary public health and to strengthen Veterinary Services worldwide:  

• The Terrestrial Code, first published in 1968 under the name of International Zoosanitary Code, provides standards for the prevention, early detection, reporting and control of pathogens in terrestrial animals.  

• The Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals, first published in 1989, provides standards on diagnostic laboratory methods and requirements for the production and control of vaccines and other biological products for terrestrial animals. 

• The Aquatic Code, introduced in 1995 to extend standards on disease prevention, early detection, reporting and control to amphibians, crustaceans, fish and molluscs. 

• The Manual of Diagnostic Tests for Aquatic Animals, also released in 1995 to provide standards on diagnostic laboratory methods for diseases of aquatic animals.

The development of WOAH Standards relies on the dedicated and comprehensive work of specialised committees and groups, based on scientific rigor and consensus among Members, following transparent and democratic adoption procedures.

Carlos Henrique Baqueta Fávaro, Brazilian Minister for Agriculture and Livestock.

Indeed, to remain relevant with the latest scientific and technological developments as well as with feedback from their implementation, WOAH Codes and Manuals are being regularly updated through a science-based and consultative process: revisions proposed to address countries’ needs are developed by experts, discussed with Members and key stakeholders, and finally adopted each year by the World Assembly of Delegates, where each Member has one vote. 

A reference for the World Trade Organization  

When Members vote for the adoption of Standards at WOAH’s annual General Session, they commit to translating them into their national legislation. The World Trade Organization (WTO) adopted the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary measures (SPS) in 1995, which encourages its members to base their sanitary measures relating to animal health and zoonoses on WOAH Standards.  

WOAH Standards, widely recognised and adopted by WTO Members, provide a robust foundation for harmonising regulations and ensuring the safety of international trade in animal products. By ensuring compliance with WOAH Standards, nations can effectively address trade concerns, harmonise regulations, and promote smoother trade flows while upholding high standards of animal health and safety.

Jean-Marie Paugam, WTO Deputy Director General.  

For Brazilian Minister of Agriculture and Livestock Carlos Henrique Baqueta Fávaro, “WOAH Standards, recognised by the WTO as a reference in animal health and zoonoses, bring security, impartiality, and equity to international trade of animals and their products, avoiding unnecessary trade barriers.” 

WOAH has indeed become WTO’s reference organisation, reflecting the importance of health measures to facilitate safe international trade of animals and their products. This collaboration between international organisations and Members goes beyond trade: for example, “as a founding partner of the Standards and Trade Development Facility (STDF), alongside FAO, WHO, the World Bank, and WTO, WOAH actively contributes to assisting developing nations in meeting international sanitary and phytosanitary standards and requirements. Concrete examples include initiatives in Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, and the Philippines to control the spread of African swine fever, projects in Mongolia to improve animal identification systems, and in Ethiopia to enhance SPS compliance for meat exports”, Jean-Marie Paugam added.  

An Observatory to monitor the implementation of standards 

WOAH acknowledges that while it is important to develop and publish international standards, these recommendations need to be effectively implemented at every international border, harbour, farm and anywhere veterinary services are being delivered in the world. In some countries, implementation can be challenged by many factors, including the lack of financial and human resources, or relevant infrastructure.  

In order to know where Members stand regarding the implementation of standards, WOAH Observatory was created to collect data and facts, and provide analyses. “WOAH Standards are the international reference in the areas of animal health, animal welfare and zoonoses. However, as with many international instruments, evidence on their actual uptake remains scarce. The Observatory is an ambitious project, largely unprecedented among international organisations, to bring transparency to the use of WOAH Standards”, said Marianna Karttunen, of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), that provided support and recommendations in the development of the Observatory.  

Following a testing phase, the WOAH Observatory published its first results in 2022. The programme is expected to reach full speed in 2025. Data is provided by Members and collected from external sources, then analysed to identify implementation gaps and provide recommendations to Members, while guiding WOAH capacity building activities and standard-setting process.  

“Other international organisations will be able to learn much from WOAH’s experience in setting up the Observatory. WOAH’s active participation in the Partnership of International Organisations for Effective International Rulemaking is therefore timely and very welcome”, Marianna Karttunen added.  

The Observatory is at the core of WOAH’s current digital transformation, in line with the principles of thoroughness, international cooperation and transparency that keep international standards still fully relevant today.  

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Beyond the ethical obligation to treat animals with dignity, ensuring their welfare also translates into tangible benefits for various stakeholders. By prioritising animal welfare, slaughterhouses not only enhance product value but contribute to food safety and product quality, mitigating the risk of contamination and reducing instances of meat spoilage. This commitment to quality assurance not only safeguards consumer health but also enhances consumer trust and loyalty, ultimately resulting in improved economic returns and sustainability for the industry as a whole. 

Towards safer and more ethical slaughter 

To support the safe and ethical slaughter of animals for human consumption, a revised standard on animal welfare during slaughter (chapter 7.5 of the Terrestrial Code) has been adopted by the World Assembly of Delegates during WOAH’s 91^st General Session.  

The standard focuses on ensuring good animal welfare conditions during slaughter operations. Notably, it provides animal-based measures to assess the level of welfare and recommends remedial and corrective actions to be applied, when necessary. Including animal welfare indicators is key to support the implementation of the recommendations included in this chapter. Moreover, through comprehensive training and competency measures, the standard emphasises the critical role of personnel in upholding ethical standards and highlights the importance of training in understanding species-specific behaviours, recognising signs of distress, and implementing preventive actions.

Additionally, the standard delves into the impact of premises design and equipment choice on animal welfare, noting considerations such as thermal comfort, ease of movement, and injury prevention. It provides detailed recommendations for handling free-moving animals during unloading and restraint, stressing the significance of preventive equipment, proper lighting, and minimising distractions to reduce stress in animals and ensure humane treatment. Furthermore, the chapter addresses welfare concerns related to stunning, promoting effective methods, along with the monitoring of stunning effectiveness to uphold ethical standards throughout the slaughter process. 

The significance of adopting international standards on animal welfare during slaughter cannot be overstated. It underscores a collective responsibility to ensure ethical treatment throughout the slaughter process, acknowledging that the welfare of animals is not just a moral imperative but a shared obligation. By prioritising animal welfare, stakeholders not only uphold ethical standards but also contribute to the wellbeing of workers and the assurance of product quality.

Furthermore, it is essential to adopt these standards to support Members who do not yet have a regulatory framework in place in this area. Providing a unified and robust set of guidelines helps ensure that all Members, regardless of their current regulatory status, can achieve a high standard of animal welfare. Therefore, it is imperative for all involved parties to protect animal welfare, recognising that doing so benefits not only the animals themselves but also the workers who care for them and the consumers who rely on safe and ethically produced products. 

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Vector-borne diseases (VBDs) are emerging as a significant threat to both human and animal health, with recent years seeing a troubling increase in their prevalence and spread. The World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) has highlighted this growing concern in their latest report “Animal Health Situation Worldwide” covering 2023 and early 2024, presented during its 91^st General Session. This analysis brings some additional elements related to the intricate relationship between climate change and the dynamics of VBDs, underscoring the urgent need for effective surveillance and control measures.

Climate change’s impact on
vector-borne diseases (VBDs)

VBDs, which include diseases transmitted by vectors such as mosquitoes, ticks, and flies, thrive in certain environmental conditions. The climatic conditions of tropical regions make them particularly vulnerable to these diseases. However, climate change is reshaping this landscape, altering vector density, activity periods, and geographical distribution. These changes facilitate the expansion of VBDs into new areas, posing significant risks to previously unaffected regions. 

WOAH’s report on the “Animal Health Situation Worldwide” underscores the complexity of this issue, noting that both biological and non-biological pathways influence VBD transmission. There is clear evidence that climate change is a critical driver in the spread of these diseases. Observational data corroborate this, showing an increasing trend in the maximum latitudes at which VBDs are reported, closely mirroring global temperature anomalies.

Revealing emerging trends 

Data reported through the early warning system of the World Animal Health Information System (WAHIS), from 2023 and early 2024 (as of 11 March 2024), reveal that VBDs were responsible for a total of 2,422 outbreaks across 28 countries and territories, in the context of exceptional epidemiological events. These events mainly include first occurrences, recurrences and new strains. The Americas notably experienced a large outbreak of western equine encephalomyelitis, with 1,461 outbreaks, while Europe reported 697 outbreaks of various VBDs. 

Of the 90 diseases of terrestrial animals currently listed by WOAH, almost a third are vector-borne (entirely or for which vectors play an important role), some of which have shown a significant evolution in 2023 and early 2024.

Infection with West Nile fever virus, bluetongue virus, lumpy skin disease virus and western equine encephalomyelitis virus were the most frequently reported in 2023 and early 2024, in the context of exceptional events. Infection with lumpy skin disease virus, for which exceptional events were predominant in Asia, accounted for 144 outbreaks, making it the most reported VBD outside Europe and the Americas through early warning. Notably, 99% of these VBD outbreaks in 2023 and early 2024 were detected in temperate regions, indicating a worrying shift in their geographical distribution. 

Monitoring the expansion of VBDs 

These challenges are not new and date back several years. In response, WOAH had launched in 2022 the PROVNA project, aimed at enhancing VBD surveillance in North Africa. This initiative seeks to define ‘ecoregions’ within the study area, identify vulnerable zones, and develop a prototype application to predict climatic and environmental changes.  

A notable case study presented in the report is the recent spread of infection with epizootic haemorrhagic disease (EHD) virus. Traditionally confined to regions like North America and parts of Asia, EHD has expanded its range significantly since 2006, with new reports from countries around the Mediterranean and into Europe. This spread exemplifies the broader trend of VBD expansion driven by climate and environmental changes. 

Taking action for global health 

WOAH’s report paints a vivid picture of the escalating threat posed by vector-borne diseases in the context of climate change. As it stands at its centenary, WOAH reiterates the need for robust surveillance systems, international collaboration, and adaptive strategies to manage this growing challenge. As climate change continues to influence the spread and impact of VBDs, the global community must respond with urgency and innovation to safeguard both human and animal health. Because animal health is our health. It’s everyone’s health. 

For more detailed insights, explore the full report.

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Editorial piece by Dr Monique Éloit, former Director General, WOAH

In 1924, recognising the threat of animal diseases spreading through trade, the World Organisation for Animal Health was founded. A century on, we have significantly evolved the global animal health agenda, standing by the veterinary workforce worldwide.  

WOAH is now a significant and influential player in high-level meetings and forums alongside peers in the sectors of human health, food and agriculture, as well as the environment. As we look into the future, our focus will remain on three key objectives: ensuring that Veterinary Services are duly acknowledged for their critical role, advocating for sustainable practices, and championing animal health and welfare for a safer world. 

100 years of caring for the human-animal relationship 

Understanding the importance of animal health is crucial for humans because our societies are deeply intertwined with the existence of animals. It’s our duty to assume our role in ensuring their health and welfare; it’s not just an option but a fundamental obligation. The bond between people and animals has always existed, originating in a historic working and sustenance relationship. Today, animals are integral to human life in numerous ways, from farming of domesticated animals to keeping ecosystems in balance to sustain wildlife. A staggering 2.6 billion people rely on livestock, small-scale fishing, and aquaculture for their livelihoods and income. More recently, the positive impact of pets on our emotional and physical well-being has also been recognised. The breadth of our relationship with animals is vast and ever-growing. 

As an organisation, WOAH has evolved significantly, now encompassing many facets of the human-animal relationship, expanding its initial focus on trade-related issues. Alongside our partners, we are addressing today’s global challenges, including the rise of antimicrobial resistance, the impacts of climate change, and the protection of wildlife health. 

100 years of benefitting communities 

Every time actions are taken to preserve animal health, societies observe countless positive ripple effects. In a context where 60% of infectious diseases that affect people are of animal origin, preserving animal health is critical in safeguarding human health. Keeping animals healthy is crucial for guaranteeing access to safe food supplies, such as fish, meat, milk, and eggs, which in turn decreases poverty and hunger. With women making up 50 to 70% of the workforce in livestock and aquatic sector, better animal health contributes to gender equality by providing them with dependable income and better working conditions.  

Improving animal welfare improves animal health. Over time, WOAH has intensified its efforts to support animal welfare. By providing countries with detailed guidelines, we encourage farmers to adopt safer and more responsible practices. We support a worldwide transition to farming methods that are more environmentally friendly, aligning with multiple Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Enhanced animal welfare means healthier animals, which translates to higher productivity. Moreover, it helps cut down on greenhouse gases and farming-related pollution. Agriculture contributes 10-12% of global greenhouse gas emissions, with meat, poultry, and dairy production responsible for 75% of this amount. Recognising the significant role animal farming plays in emitting greenhouse gases and working towards reducing them through sustainable methods is vital for addressing climate change—one of humanity’s most significant challenges. 

100 years of championing animal health and welfare in global discussions 

When WOAH was created 100 years ago, its aim was to help mitigate the spread of diseases across borders, especially through trade. A rinderpest outbreak in Belgium sparked international concern, leading to the setting up of an information and reporting system for animal diseases.  

Globally, WOAH has been recognised early on as the leading standard-setting organisation for animal health and zoonoses by the World Trade Organization (WTO). From this point onwards, we have progressively gained influence as the advocacy voice of the veterinary workforce on critical global challenges. Through a One Health approach and our collaboration with the World Health Organization (WHO), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) within the Quadripartite partnership, we have consistently represented the animal health perspective on the international stage. At the G20, the United Nations General Assembly, the Paris Peace Forum or the G7, we have shown our commitment to playing a role in resolving multifaceted issues of our times. 

Tomorrow: responding to global challenges together

Moving forward, we will continue to adapt, just as we have over the last century, by staying attuned to the evolving needs of our Members and societies, and by providing the most appropriate responses. Back in 1924, nations recognised the importance of uniting behind a shared mission: to stop the spread of diseases such as rinderpest. A century later, in 2024, the same level of collaboration and solidarity is essential to tackle the challenges of today. Whether it’s responding to extreme weather events, addressing the threat of antimicrobial resistance, or preparing for pandemics, these challenges demand a collective and multi-sectoral approach. As WOAH embarks on its second century, we are dedicated as ever to the global efforts for One Health, using our commitment to animal health and welfare as a foundation for creating a more sustainable future. 

Because animal health is our health.
It’s everyone’s health.  

Dr Monique Éloit
former Director General of WOAH.

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“Medicine cures man, veterinary medicine cures mankind”, as the saying goes. The work of Veterinary Services goes beyond the improvement of animal health: it has a social, economic, environmental and public health impact.

To help countries improve their Veterinary and Aquatic Animal Health Services, WOAH launched the PVS Pathway in 2007. By providing countries with an independent, expert evaluation of their Veterinary Services’ critical competencies, the programme allows for targeted, more efficient and measurable capacity-development.  

Since the creation of the PVS Pathway and as of March 2024: 

PVS Pathway: from field assessments to targeted support 

For each evaluation mission, WOAH-trained experts meet with various stakeholders in the country, ranging from ministers to farmers. They visit field sites and key facilities, such as laboratories, border posts and slaughterhouses. In their report, experts analyse each country’s unique challenges and advantages to support Veterinary Services’ continuous improvement. Based on the evidence collected, the experts provide recommendations to enable countries to take ownership, act and prioritise improvements of their animal health systems.

“The PVS recommendations are a fundamental tool in providing a formal diagnosis, with an objective and independent assessment, endorsed by WOAH, of the quality of Veterinary Services,” explains Mr. Esteban Valenzuela Van Treek, Minister of Agriculture of Chile. “This makes it possible to identify the gaps and shortcomings,” he adds. 

In 2017, to mark the 10-year anniversary of the programme, relevant stakeholders convened for a PVS Pathway Think Tank Forum, to set directions for the future and devise ways to keep the programme relevant and attractive. The evolved PVS Pathway was launched two years later, with activities structured in the four stages still used today: orientation, evaluation, planning and targeted support.  

To better respond to particular needs and to align with global control and eradication efforts led by WOAH and its partners, specific disease-oriented approaches were created on peste des petits ruminants, rabies, and African swine fever. For Mr. Esteban Valenzuela Van Treek, “the incorporation of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) as one of the 45 critical competencies” in the PVS Evaluations is another “fundamental improvement”, as it “takes into account that one of the main One Health problems that humanity will have to deal with is AMR.” 

Providing countries with tools and resources for advocacy

As of 2024, nearly 600 PVS activities have been conducted. In particular, evaluation reports include an analysis of Veterinary Services’ performance against important issues, such as legal and regulatory matters as well as human, financial and physical resources, to ensure compliance with WOAH international Standards. These rich and actionable recommendations have turned PVS reports into a key reference tool for strategic investments.  

For Gilberto Correia Carvalho Silva, Minister of Agriculture and the Environment of Cape Verde, “the PVS evaluation enables us to mobilise financial resources to bring our national Veterinary Services in line with national, regional and international standards.” 

Abhijit Mitra, Animal Husbandry Commissioner, remembers well the PVS Evaluation of India’s Veterinary Services, conducted in 2018. “It helped us identify gaps and take some initiatives to strengthen our Veterinary Services”, he says. “Later, when we were formulating a Pandemic Fund project for support of the World Bank, it really helped us to determine our objectives, activities, and strategies to develop. When we submitted our project, we realised that the evaluation had really given us an edge over other applicants.

PVS Evaluations: A boost for agricultural exports  

PVS Evaluations are not only intended for developing countries. Okita Masatsugu, Director of Animal Health Division at the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries in Japan, participated in Japan’s PVS Evaluation mission in 2016. “It was actually the first time we had a comprehensive evaluation of our Veterinary Services. We wanted to find the loopholes in our veterinary systems. And more importantly, we wanted to show our transparency and accountability to our trading partners. Now, thanks to this PVS Pathway initiative, we are enjoying a very good progress in the export of Japanese products, such as wagyu beef.” 

Internationally, PVS recommendations serve as valuable insights for development agencies, such as the World Bank, to tailor their lending operations and technical assistance programs. These recommendations inform decision-making processes regarding resource allocation and project design, ensuring that interventions are targeted and aligned with national priorities.

Renaud Seligmann, World Bank Director for Strategy and Operations of the Sustainable Development Practice Group. 

“Moreover, PVS reports facilitate dialogue and collaboration among countries, international organisations, and donors, fostering partnerships aimed at addressing common challenges in animal health and welfare”, adds Renaud Seligmann.

“Taking the reports off the shelf” with a new information system for PVS  

Over its 17 years of existence, the programme gathered a wealth of comparable data and insights on national Veterinary Services, over time and across countries. In May 2024, WOAH launched a new information system for PVS. “The idea is to take the reports off the shelf and to use them in a smarter way”, Barbara Alessandrini, Head of WOAH’s Capacity Building Department explained. “Now, countries can use  data and insights from the PVS reports, they can perform qualitative and quantitative analyses, and have a true evaluation and monitoring framework based on the level of achievement of the PVS critical competencies.”  

Some Members have already started using the new platform. “In the past, we had to browse through long documents to retrieve specific information. The new information system will make our life easier”, said Dr Pebi Suseno, Senior Veterinary Officer in Indonesia. “With a few clicks, we can fetch the data and recommendations we need for each project.”  

For Barbara Alessandrini, the new information system will revolutionise the way PVS data are used, in line with their original intention: “Members are empowered with the information. Technical and financial partners are empowered. WOAH is empowered. Transparency of national Veterinary Services is increased by Members sharing information. And we have demonstrated, over the years, that evidence-based decision-making is always more effective.”  

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What if artificial intelligence were used as a response to the global shortage of the  veterinary workforce? What kind of challenges would rapidly rising water temperatures pose for aquaculture and fishing in general? Turning 100 seems like another perfect opportunity to take a step back and reflect on what comes next.

From September 2023 to January 2024, the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) led a foresight project which brought together more than 70 stakeholders from the animal health and welfare domains. The goal: to leverage foresight methods to imagine possible futures and gather insightful ideas to make informed decisions and strategies.  

Why is WOAH using foresight? 

Interest in foresight is growing as more individuals and organisations acknowledge that embracing uncertainty and analysing multiple futures is crucial to navigating the challenges of the 21st century. In this context, Members asked WOAH to establish foresight initiatives at regional and global level in 2019. The goal was to navigate, plan for and adapt to uncertain futures. 

As a response, WOAH started using foresight methods to raise awareness of prevailing or emerging changes, opportunities or disruptions, within the animal health and welfare sectors and beyond. These methods include the examination of the consequences of trends and emerging issues, such as climate change, through scenarios that can guide decision making and policies, by helping test existing strategies and develop new ones. Foresight fosters our capacity to embrace uncertainty, rather than seek to eliminate it. This empowers the Organisation and its Members to look at the present through a different lens. 

From the eco-revolution to space exploration: five animal health scenarios 

For WOAH’s 100th anniversary, a participatory foresight project was organised in a series of consecutive workshops. To ensure a youth perspective, members from the International Veterinary Students Association (IVSA) participated, alongside experienced animal health and welfare professionals. They explored current and emerging trends and drivers for change, such as the rise of AI, biothreats, medical advances or climate change, to build a range of possible futures scenarios. 

Five scenarios were drafted: “Eco-revolution rising” explored food system impacts of climate change and proliferation of biotechnology. “In WOAH we trust” addressed the impacts of misinformation and erosion of public trust in the context of a food system crisis. “Hangry games” described a food system collapse following political and economic tensions, in a context where artificial intelligence has become central to addressing animal health and welfare challenges.  

“Animal health from the bottom of the oceans to the stars” explored technological developments in animal production intersecting with the growing space industry, leading to the first off-planet satellite farms. “Farming for resilience” described the effects of polycrises on farming, the diversity of farming practices from small-scale cooperatives to robot-led farming, as well as the release of multispecies superbugs upon the world by the dark side of science.  

During the last series of workshops, participants developed innovative strategies to address the challenges described in these scenarios. Each participant contributed with their priorities in mind and discovered additional ones in the process. Solutions were considered collectively, ranging from  greater exposure of young children to science and experimentation, to training on innovative technologies for all veterinarians, and a global step up of the One Health approach.  

Fostering long-term vision and current action 

What main challenges are animal health and welfare facing in the coming years? Participants of the foresight project representing the youth shared their views. For Anandu Rajaji, IVSA member from India, “the surging popularity of meat and milk replacers necessitates comprehensive research”, and the “rise of antimicrobial resistance demands urgent action”. For IVSA Animal Welfare chair Anna Wilson from India, “the root causes of many emerging diseases, climate changes, human-animal conflicts, and other environmental problems, are deforestation and pollution”. “The enormity of our challenges has become more apparent to me,” she adds.

While the foresight project has confronted each participant with the reality of the challenges lying ahead, it also fostered dialogue and collective brainstorming.

The future now presents exciting challenges, brimming with opportunities for positive change.

Marta Masserdoti,
One Health chair at IVSA, Italy.

A committed animal health and welfare community 

The importance of the animal health and welfare sector and the responsibility of its stakeholders in addressing present and future challenges now appears clearer than ever. “It is becoming increasingly clear that animal health is interconnected with the biggest issues facing the world today. It is precisely their magnitude that should instill in us an unwavering hope that the world, especially the youth, will come together to address them”, states Mehdi Amrani Souhli, an IVSA member from Morocco. 

Faced with the numerous possible outcomes of today’s trends, participants in the foresight project found comfort within this community. As collective images of the futures appeared, the group developed common perspectives on what is possible, and a shared sense of identity and possibility. 

My vision of the future changed for the better when I realised there are like-minded people out there trying to make fundamental changes to the systemic challenges we face.

Lisa Buren, a member of the IVSA from the Netherlands.

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The economic, social and cultural importance of animals for human societies is as old as time. Animals are critical for food security, human health, livelihoods, sustainability and even to provide emotional support. For instance, “It is estimated that 200 million working animals support the livelihoods of over one billion people around the world”, notes Roly Owers, Chair of the International Coalition for Animal Welfare (ICFAW) which collaborates with WOAH to improve animal welfare across the world.  

With the prominent roles animals have in our lives “comes an ethical responsibility to ensure the welfare of animals is upheld to the greatest extent practicable”, adds Dr Carol Sheridan, Assistant Secretary of the Animal Welfare Branch in the Australian Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry. Yet, NGOs such as the World Horse Welfare, a member of the ICFAW, still observe “a lack of recognition of [the] importance, and health and welfare at policy level”. 

Building momentum for animal welfare 

Today, we define WOAH’s mission as “improving animal health and welfare across the globe.” This second aspect, closely connected to the first, became part of the Organisation’s mandate with the adoption of a resolution in 2002. Members recognised the essential link between animal health and animal welfare, and asked WOAH [then OIE] to develop a detailed vision and strategy that would incorporate all the facets of this complex issue.  

More than twenty years later, important strides have been made. At the first Animal Welfare Global Conference, organised in Paris, France, in 2004, national Delegates adopted the first standards on animal transport and slaughter, working in collaboration with international organisations, the private sector, and the civil society. These standards were published in the Terrestrial Code in 2004 and in the Aquatic Code in 2008. Animal welfare was officially defined as “the physical and mental state of an animal in relation to the conditions in which it lives and dies.”

Developing standards based on science and evidence 

Producers’ organisations, such as the International Poultry Council, provided their professional perspective in the making of WOAH’s standards. “Our real-life input is critical to ensuring that WOAH’s work is based on farm level knowledge and science,” said Ricardo Santin, president of the Council. “International governmental guidance needs to be taken to the national level, and ultimately to the farm level. This is a process that takes the right communication and training tools so the private sector can act upon government sector guidance.”  

For Dr Carol Sheridan, “The development of WOAH Standards has promoted a shared understanding of animal welfare and the ethical treatment of animals” which contributes to improving animal welfare at all levels. By coining international standards based on science, we provided Members with guidance to develop their own national directions.  

“WOAH Standards were a key building block for the development of Australian Standards for the Export of Livestock and the Exporter Supply Chain Assurance System”, adds Dr Carol Sheridan. The making of these standards also sheds light on the importance of animal welfare to sustain human societies:

The very existence of WOAH Standards for the welfare of working equids has raised awareness of the value and roles of working animals who are often invisible.

Roly Owers, Chair of the International Coalition for Animal Welfare (ICFAW).

A strategy that acknowledges animal welfare’s contribution to sustainable development 

The fourth Animal Welfare Conference in Guadalajara, Mexico, in 2016, paved the way for the adoption of WOAH’s Global Animal Welfare Strategy. In this roadmap, WOAH [then OIE] enumerates different roles of animals and recognises “all these purposes as legitimate, while carrying an associated ethical responsibility to ensure any such use is humane, as defined through the OIE’s international standards for animal welfare, in recognition of the sentience of animals.” 

Far from abstract ethics, animal welfare is approached as a key asset to sustainable development. WOAH’s Global Animal Welfare Strategy acknowledges that in animal production systems, attention to welfare can improve animal health, productivity, quality, food safety, and economic returns, and therefore contribute to food security and economic prosperity. “To maximise the poultry sector’s contribution to food security, maintaining healthy and productive birds is key, and animal welfare is key to a healthy bird”, confirms Ricardo Santin.  

Collaborating to bring animal welfare to farm life  

WOAH’s Global Animal Welfare Forums, as part of the key activities of the strategy, took over from the previous conferences to foster dialogue on the most challenging topics and make sure all stakeholders are on board. The last global forum, held in November 2023 in Paris, France, was an opportunity to share experience and good practices on national animal legislation. 

NGOs agree with producers and governments on this particular aspect: implementation is key “There is much to be done in order to properly implement WOAH Standards among countries and improve the welfare of animals worldwide,” notes Roly Owers, stressing the importance of collaboration between all actors, in line with WOAH’s Vision on Animal Welfare, published in 2024. 

Collaboration will be essential to counter the “increasing impact of climate change on livestock industries” which is bound to affect animal welfare, notes Dr Carol Sheridan. “Through organisations such as WOAH, we can address these as a global community”, she adds. Now, more than ever, WOAH calls for a paradigm shift in the way humans interact with animals – for their benefit and ours.

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Dame Sally Davies is the UK Special Envoy on antimicrobial resistance (AMR). After a career as a hematologist and as Chief Medical Officer for England, she is now a leading advocate on AMR on the global stage.  

Professor Scott Weese is a veterinarian and professor in pathobiology at the Ontario Veterinary College, Canada, and Director of the Centre for Public Health and Zoonoses. He is also a co-author of “Worms and Germs”, a popular science blog on animal health.

When was antimicrobial resistance first acknowledged?

Dame Sally Davies: Alexander Fleming, the discoverer of penicillin himself, recognised it as early as 1945. We were always aware it could happen. In the past decade, the data shows that AMR has been steadily on the rise. I was asked to chair the first Technical Advisory Group on AMR in 2014 and the first Global Action Plan was passed in 2015 at the World Health Organization (WHO) with the support of WOAH and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).  

Professor Scott Weese: Issues in animals emerged similarly but it took longer for us to recognise them as resistance because there is less testing and research in animal health compared with human health. Still WOAH did warn against improper use of antibiotics as early as 1952, in a resolution.  

“Practitioner must not use antibiotics at the discretion of his fantasy, but following rules that have been set by experience. Use of antibiotics against insensitive germs or specifically resistant, utilisation of too weak doses or through a too short time frame, can reveal resistant germs, delaying the onset of an efficient therapy and lead to treatment failures, harming a method that, when judiciously and correctly applied, has saved numerous human and animal lives.”

Abstract from WOAH’s 1952 resolution based on scientific evidence reported in 1948.  

Why do human and animal health stakeholders need to work together to fight AMR?  

Prof. S.W. We are not sure how much AMR in humans is attributable to animals: probably between 4% and 96%! What we do know is that we need everyone to act. Doctors, veterinarians, humans and animal carers alike. In the past, a “blame game” was going on: veterinarians blaming physicians for giving children antibiotics against viral infections [reminder: it doesn’t work], physicians blaming the overuse of antibiotics on livestock… The truth is, we all need to do a better job. 

D.S.D. Calculations by WHO have shown that antibiotics give an extra 20 years of life to humans. We don’t want to misuse them so that resistance develops. We also know that animals, including humans, pee and poo more than 70% of the antibiotics they absorb. Without extraordinarily modern sewage, high-use farms, hospitals, and other facilities can contaminate the environment.  

What can an international organisation such as WOAH do?  

Prof. S.W. WOAH has been a strong voice on issues such as growth promotion. Telling farmers what to do can be unpopular, so it makes it easier for countries if they get international support. There is also an advocacy component, to get Nations to bring in robust funded action plans to improve more than just antibiotic use, but whole health systems.  

D.S.D. WOAH plays a leadership role. It shows that AMR matters, and that it is not only a concern of human health.  

What were the key achievements in the past years? 

D.S.D. In 2016, at the United Nations High-level meeting, the Secretary General established the Inter-Agency coordination group (IACG) which brought in WOAH, WHO and FAO as equals, working together. In 2019, the Global Leaders Group was created, with a Joint Secretariat including WOAH, WHO, FAO, and recently the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). The inclusion of UNEP shows that resistance is no longer just a human health, or animal health issue, but truly “One Health”. Most countries are now ready to have a national action plan against AMR, although funding is still an issue. The recently launched Multi-Stakeholder Platform brings in the private sector and civil society, as responsible use is not only a matter of regulation, but of awareness, understanding and collective engagement from everyone.  

What can be done today against antimicrobial resistance?

D.S.D. Let’s start with preventing infections. The first thing is to have clean water, use of soap, sanitation, good air flow: in health care facilities, in animal rearing, and in people’s homes. We need more use of vaccines: routine campaigns, as well as new vaccines for animal farming. We also need to improve diagnostics, so that antibiotics are used only when appropriate, not because of an erratic diagnosis or for growth promotion. Action on antimicrobial resistance requires support and training for veterinary and medical expertise. 

Prof. S.W. AMR is a tricky issue, because it is an end result of our health care challenges. There is no miracle cure: let’s start with better barns, with good ventilation. We need better education, empowerment of women who are often decision-makers for health issues and equitable access to appropriate treatments and preventives. We also need to change mindsets in farming, because we get a lot of resistance to change from people who have always done things a certain way and don’t necessarily understand why we can’t go on the way we used to.  

What will you propose at the High-Level Meeting of the United Nations on AMR ?

D.S.D. We would like to come out of the High-Level Meeting in September 2024 with an independent scientific panel, owned by low- and middle-income countries, which could set targets for the world. UNEP could play a key role in making sure of that, with its experience with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).  

Prof. S.W. We need to focus on actionable things for prescribers and farmers. Reducing use of antibiotics by kilograms is not an effective target, because the outcomes vary from drug to drug. We need more funding for research, to understand exactly which components drive resistance. For example, we are preparing an app-based guideline for Veterinary Services in low- and middle-income countries, with content adapted to what’s available in each country. We also proposed an AWaRe-type classification for antibiotics for animal use.  

D.S.D. We need standards to implement the good practices that we already know are working, as well as innovation on growth promotion, disinfection, diagnosis, affordable new treatments and vaccines. For the 2024 High-Level Meeting, I suggested a focus on access to medication because you can’t worry about resistance when people are not getting access to standard and essential antibiotics, basic hygiene, vaccines. 

Prof. S.W. People are not marching on the streets for antimicrobial resistance like they do for climate change: we need to motivate people, groups and Nations to act. Rather than deflecting blame, we need all organisations to work together. A One-Health approach, as we are building it right now, is much more effective.

Have you read?

On 13 March 2024, WOAH informed the world that “high pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI) [had] reached an unprecedented milestone”, with the discovery of a dead South Polar skua on an Argentinian Antarctic base. Samples of the dead animal were sent for analysis on a neighbouring base, where it was demonstrated that the seabird had died from HPAI. An immediate notification was published on the World Animal Health Information System (WAHIS), with recommendations for joint action.

This new information was added to the database, mapped and time-referenced with other recent animal health events, providing professionals and relevant stakeholders with a global view of the most updated cases of African swine fever, SARS-CoV-2 or rabies, among other animal diseases, around the world.  

Sharing animal health information: the core of WOAH’s mission

“Without transparency and sharing of data and relevant information on the animal health situation, we would not be able to effectively prevent and fight existing animal diseases, not to mention the emerging threats,” states Jacob Jensen, the Minister of Food, Agriculture and Fisheries of Denmark.

Data collection and publication were at the heart of WOAH’s original mandate since it was created, in 1924, in response to a rinderpest outbreak in Europe. By establishing the OIE, the 28 founding countries committed to notify the Organisation “of the suspicion or confirmation of an outbreak of a disease, an infection/infestation or other epidemiological event”, so that all the Members’ veterinary authorities could be warned in turn. At the time, notifications happened through the fastest means of communication available: telegrams.  

One hundred years on, the system has evolved and is still as relevant as ever.

Disease reporting and the timely exchange of information are vital as climate change and the increasing pressure on natural resources pose significant challenges that may contribute to the emergence of new diseases.

Mahmoud Elies Hamza, the Minister of Agriculture of Tunisia.

Tracking data and rumours

Through the years, data collection and dissemination progressed along with the available technology. The first digital database, Handistatus, was made available in 1996, and the central server for WAHIS was created in 2005. At the time, the platform already included an early warning system associating alert messages on new cases of disease worldwide to a monitoring system with follow-up and thematic reports on all topics, including Veterinary Services, vaccine production, animal population and human cases of zoonoses.  

By 2016, WAHIS was providing spatial and temporal information on diseases, details on diagnostic tests and laboratories performing them, quantitative data on infected animals and qualitative data on control measures and status of diseases. “The data verification process is a critical control point for our Organisation, comprising consistency checks with historical observations, regional and global context, as well as unofficial information that is circulating.” said Dr Montserrat Arroyo, WOAH’s Deputy Director General on International Standards and Science.

Timely information ensures safe trade

By receiving animal health information from countries and territories and sharing it in a timely manner, WOAH supports safe trade between countries.

Faced with the presence of African swine fever (ASF) outbreaks in Americas, Mexico has taken full advantage of WAHIS:

This international surveillance has allowed us to keep our risk analysis for the introduction of ASF up-to-date, to detect possible routes of introduction and to establish new barriers to maintain safe trade.

Dr Juan Gay Gutiérrez, Director General on Animal Health and WOAH Delegate for Mexico.

 For New Zealand Minister for Biosecurity, Hon Andrew Hoggard, “the accurate and transparent dissemination of information on animal disease occurrence is fundamental for importing countries to confidently trade with New Zealand.”  

Not only does it help maintain safe trade, countries that regularly report to WAHIS could obtain new trade opportunities thanks to the transparency that comes with a functional information system: “Our good reporting history in WAHIS is one tangible way to demonstrate we have a robust national animal biosecurity system and that we are transparent in our disease status, which aids in building trust with our trading partners,” notes Hon Andrew Hoggard. 

Making open access to animal health information a reality 

The WAHIS in 2017 contained a wealth of reliable information. It was time to face a new challenge: making data access easier for all users. After four years of development and testing, a renovated system was launched in 2021. The new system is quicker and more intuitive, providing the ability to mine and download data, and visualise temporal and spatial data. The information is available to complement other organisations’ as well as national and regional databases of interest, allowing for enhanced decision-making worldwide.  

As it has been for 100 years, the animal health data collected by WOAH is free and available to everyone: government agencies, industries, researchers, academics, journalists–in line with the Organisation’s founding principle, that reliable, timely, accessible information is crucial for efficient global action on animal health, and public health.  

Have you read?

The World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH), through its EBO-SURSY Project, worked alongside countries for seven years to build their knowledge and design of surveillance networks. With the support of the European Union, the project is dedicated to preventing future outbreaks of viral haemorrhagic fevers (VHFs), 
and to saving lives while also protecting wildlife health.

Establishing disease surveillance protocols are crucial in saving the lives of human and animals, and the basis of any well-functioning surveillance system. With no system in place, by the time society realises that a viral haemorrhagic fever (VHF) like Ebola is present in their community, it is often too late. Each death signals a missed opportunity for a surveillance system to anticipate and effectively prevent an outbreak in the first place.  

The building blocks of a system of surveillance 

While disease surveillance can be achieved in many ways, it can also be prohibitively expensive for some countries. So what makes a surveillance system successful? Professionals in a variety of disciplines are needed, all with a high level of education and frequent trainings to keep them current. In addition, countries must have a regular supply of personal protective equipment, reagent for samples of specific pathogens, and have a functioning cold chain supply, efficient laboratories, and a functional road network. 

And even when a pathogen is correctly identified, the job is not finished. A country must be able to communicate about the pathogen accurately and have channels to share preventative measures with the public. Altogether, these factors create major hurdles. 

EBO-SURSY Project started in 2017 to help countries overcome these barriers. Committed to helping countries develop professional skills, the project has held 11 One Health trainings across 10 countries. The project even developed communication tools to help the Veterinary Services raise awareness about disease and how to protect themselves, and shared them during trainings. Helping professionals all over Western and Central Africa, the project gave trainings on laboratory diagnostics, animal sample collection, ecological factors for diseases and more. By gathering professionals across human, environmental, and animal health (including both wildlife and livestock), EBO-SURSY encouraged developing skills and connections, while also providing a sturdy foundation for the building blocks of a surveillance system.  

EBO-SURSY Project workshops on how to create a disease surveillance protocol 

Of course, not every country and its professionals have the same needs. Each country is uniquely impacted by the diseases that exist in their environment. The EBO-SURSY Project convened three regional workshops (one for Central Africa, francophone West Africa, and anglophone West Africa) to train Veterinary Service and wildlife professionals on how to develop a disease protocol step by step. And each country came prepared knowing their national priority diseases. The goal of instating a disease surveillance protocol is for a country to have a ‘masterplan’ for monitoring a pathogen, and a guideline for how to react in the case of an outbreak to best control the disease from spreading. 

The workshops focused on helping participants think through a protocol in a holistic manner. With professionals engaged from across the One Health spectrum from each country, the representatives from each sector could think through solutions and communication tactics in real time. WOAH stakeholders also played an important role in the workshops, and included Focal Points who are specialists in wildlife, laboratories, communications and disease notifications, as well as each Member’s Veterinary Services and Delegates. This high level of dedication was needed, because putting a disease protocol into place is no easy task, even when there is support. 

Barriers to proper surveillance 

Given the critical nature of a disease surveillance protocol, one might ask, why would a country not already have one? Mostly because it requires a country to have the ability to sample, test and communicate on results. Different types of surveillance sampling also necessitate various levels of effort and financial commitment.   

For example, targeted surveillance in wildlife requires that regular samples are taken from animal populations. This can become expensive, as people would need to regularly locate and access these animals, have a way to trap them, and only then, sample them and submit the sample to a lab. Less wealthy countries might prioritise other diseases, or diseases impacting humans only. Otherwise, there is also passive surveillance, which while requiring similar laboratory capacities, takes samples on an ad-hoc basis from animals found unusually sick or dead. It is therefore less expensive to cover a wider area. 

Despite this complexity, the EBO-SURSY Project was not deterred in helping countries build a surveillance protocol. After the success of the regional workshops, the participants were encouraged to bring their draft disease protocols home to share with their national Veterinary Services.  

Some countries then asked for EBO-SURSY’s support in holding national-level workshops. Led by the national Veterinary Services, they refined the protocols involving multisectoral stakeholders in the country. Three days were needed for the technical development of the protocols, and two days to present the draft plans to national Ministries. The workshops gave countries the opportunity to broaden the health horizon to include animal and environmental health within national plans, while also building personal and professional networks across the One Health sectors.  

Successfully implementing disease surveillance protocols 

By the final year of the EBO-SURSY Project, many countries have achieved their goals. Sierra Leone, the Republic of the Congo, and the Central African Republic have put Rift Valley Fever protocols into place. Côte d’Ivoire now has one for Lassa fever. Even in countries where a finalised protocol was not adopted, they still made important strides in thinking critically about developing disease protocols, and these drafts could still be implemented in the future.

In other countries, such as Cameroon who already had a finalised protocol for zoonotic diseases, they used EBO-SURSY’s involvement to deepen existing plans and build the capacity of surveillance system stakeholders. The national Veterinary Services in several countries adopted EBO-SURSY VHF communication tools to build awareness in communities. By educating their populations on these diseases, community members can directly participate in surveillance, signaling to authorities when there are unusual animal health events. 

The future of the health of animals, humans and even environments depend on such protocols with One Health principles. They are put into place to protect all of us. They can signal changes in disease patterns, new outbreaks, and hopefully prevent the death of humans and animals alike. While EBO-SURSY Project is soon ending, these disease surveillance protocols will improve health for years to come.